# Python Classes and Evennia Typeclasses

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We have now learned how to run some simple Python code from inside (and outside) your game server.
We have also taken a look at what our game dir looks and what is where. Now we'll start to use it.

## Importing 

No one writes something as big as an online game in one single huge file. Instead one breaks up the 
code into separate files (modules). Each module is dedicated to different purposes. Not only does 
it make things cleaner, organized and easier to understand. It also makes it easier to re-use code - 
you just import the resources you need and know you only get just what you requested. This makes 
it much easier to find errors and to know what code is good and which has issues.

> Evennia itself uses your code in the same way - you just tell it where a particular type of code is, 
and it will import and use it (often instead of its defaults).

We have already successfully imported things, for example:

    > py import world.test ; world.test.hello_world(me)
    Hello World!

In this example, on your hard drive, the files looks like this: 

```
mygame/
    world/ 
        test.py    <- inside this file is a function hello_world

```
If you followed earlier tutorial lessons, the `mygame/world/test.py` file should look like this (if
not, make it so):

```python
def hello_world(who):
    who.msg("Hello World!")
```

```sidebar:: Remember:

    - Indentation matters in Python 
    - So does capitalization
    - Use 4 `spaces` to indent, not tabs
    - Empty lines are fine
    - Anything on a line after a `#` is a `comment`, ignored by Python
```

The _python_path_ describes the relation between Python resources, both between and inside 
Python _modules_ (that is, files ending with .py). A python-path separates each part of the 
path `.` and always skips the `.py` file endings. Also, Evennia already knows to start looking 
for python resources inside `mygame/` so this should never be specified. Hence

    import world.test 

The `import` Python instruction loads `world.test` so you have it available. You can now go "into"
this module to get to the function you want:
    
    world.test.hello_world(me)

Using `import` like this means that you have to specify the full `world.test` every time you want
to get to your function. Here's a more powerful form of import: 

    from world.test import hello_world

The `from ... import ...` is very, very common as long as you want to get something with a longer 
python path. It imports `hello_world` directly, so you can use it right away!

     > py from world.test import hello_world ; hello_world(me)
     Hello World!
     
Let's say your `test.py` module had a bunch of interesting functions. You could then import them
all one by one: 

    from world.test import hello_world, my_func, awesome_func
     
If there were _a lot_ of functions, you could instead just import `test` and get the function 
from there when you need (without having to give the full `world.test` every time):

    > from world import test ; test.hello_world(me
    Hello World! 
    
You can also _rename_ stuff you import. Say for example that the module you import to already 
has a function `hello_world` but we also want to use the one from `world/test.py`:

    from world.test import hello_world as test_hello_world
    
The form `from ... import ... as ...` renames the import. 

    > from world.test import hello_world as hw ; hw(me)
    Hello World!
    
> Avoid renaming unless it's to avoid a name-collistion like above - you want to make things as 
> easy to read as possible, and renaming adds another layer of potential confusion. 
 
In [the basic intro to Python](Python-basic-introduction) we learned how to open the in-game
multi-line interpreter. 

    > py 
    Evennia Interactive Python mode
    Python 3.7.1 (default, Oct 22 2018, 11:21:55)
    [GCC 8.2.0] on Linux
    [py mode - quit() to exit] 
    
You now only need to import once to use the imported function over and over.

    > from world.test import hello_world
    > hello_world()
    Hello World!
    > hello_world()
    Hello World!
    > hello_world()
    Hello World!
    > quit()
    Closing the Python console.

The same goes when writing code in a module - in most Python modules you will see a bunch of 
imports at the top, resources that are then used by all code in that module.

## On classes and objects 

Now that we know about imports, let look at a real Evennia module and try to understand it.

Open `mygame/typeclasses/objects.py` in your text editor of choice. 

```python
"""
module docstring
"""
from evennia import DefaultObject

class Object(DefaultObject):
    """
    class docstring
    """
    pass
```

```sidebar:: Docstrings vs Comments

    A docstring is not the same as a comment (created by `#`). A 
    docstring is not ignored by Python but is an integral part of the thing 
    it is documenting (the module and the class in this case).
```
The real file is much longer but we can ignore the multi-line strings (`""" ... """`). These serve 
as documentation-strings, or _docstrings_ for the module (at the top) and the `class` below. 

Below the module doc string we have the import. In this case we are importing a resource
from the core `evennia` library itself. We will dive into this later, for now we just treat this
as a black box. 

Next we have a `class` named `Object`, which _inherits_ from `DefaultObject`. This class doesn't
actually do anything on its own, its only code (except the docstring) is `pass` which means,
well, to pass and don't do anything. 

To understand what we are looking at, we need to explain what a 'class', an 'object' and an 'instance' is.
```sidebar:: OOP

    Classes, objects, instances and inheritance are fundamental to Python. This and some 
    other concepts are often clumped together under the term Object-Oriented-Programming (OOP). 
```

### Classes and instances

A 'class' can be seen as a 'template' for a 'type' of object. The class describes the basic functionality
of everyone of that class. For example, we could have a class `Mobile` which has resources for moving itself
from room to room.

Open a new file `mygame/typeclasses/mymobile.py`. Add the following simple class:

```python

class Mobile:

    key = "Monster"

    def move_around(self):
        print(f"{self.key} is moving!")

```

Above we have defined a `Mobile` class with one variable `key` (that is, the name) and one 
_method_ on it. A method is like a function except it sits "on" the class. It also always has 
at least one argument (almost always written as `self` although you could in principle use 
another name), which is a reference back to itself. So when we print `self.key` we are referring
back to the `key` on the class.

A class is just a template. Before it can be used, we must create an _instance_ of the class. If
`Mobile` is a class, then an instance is Fluffy, the individual red dragon. You instantiate 
by _calling_ the class, much like you would a function: 

    fluffy = Mobile()
   
Let's try it in-game (we use multi-line mode, it's easier)

    > py 
    > from typeclasses.mymobile import Mobile
    > fluffy = Mobile()
    > fluffy.move_around()
    Monster is moving!

We created an _instance_ of `Mobile`, which we stored in the variable `fluffy`. We then 
called the `move_around` method on fluffy to get the printout. 

> Note how we _didn't_ call the method as `fluffy.move_around(self)`. While the `self` has to be 
> there when defining the method, we _never_ add it explicitly when we call the method (Python 
> will add the correct `self` for us automatically behind the scenes). 

Let's create the sibling of Fluffy, Cuddly:

    > cuddly = Mobile()
    > cuddly.move_around()
    Monster is moving!  

We now have two dragons and they'll hang around until with call `quit()` to exit this Python 
instance. We can have them move as many times as we want. But no matter how many dragons we 
create, they will all show the same printout since `key` is always fixed as "Monster".

Let's make the class a little more flexible: 

```python

class Mobile:
 
    def __init__(self, key):
        self.key = key 

    def move_around(self):
        print(f"{self.key} is moving!")

```

The `__init__` is a special method that Python recognizes. If given, this handles extra arguments
when you instantiate a new Mobile. We have it add an argument `key` that we store on `self`. 

Now, for Evennia to see this code change, we need to reload the server. You can either do it this
way:

    > quit()
    Python Console is closing.
    > reload
    
Or you can use a separate terminal and restart from outside the game: 
```sidebar:: On reloading

    Reloading with the python mode gets a little annoying since you need to redo everything
    after every reload. Just keep in mind that during regular development you will not be 
    working this way. The in-game python mode is practical for quick fixes and experiments like 
    this, but actual code is normally written externally, in python modules.
```

    $ evennia reload   (or restart)

Either way you'll need to go into `py` again:

    > py 
    > from typeclasses.mymobile import Mobile
    fluffy = Mobile("Fluffy")
    fluffy.move_around()
    Fluffy is moving! 

Now we passed `"Fluffy"` as an argument to the class. This went into `__init__` and set `self.key`, which we 
later used to print with the right name! Again, note that we didn't include `self` when calling.

### What's so good about objects? 

So far all we've seen a class do is to behave our first `hello_world` function but more complex. We 
could just have made a function:

```python
     def mobile_move_around(key):
        print(f"{key} is moving!")      
```

The difference between the function and an instance of a class (the object), is that the 
object retains _state_. Once you called the function it forgets everything about what you called
it with last time. The object, on the other hand, remembers changes: 

    > fluffy.key = "Cuddly"
    > fluffy.move_around()
    Cuddly is moving! 
    
The `fluffy` object's `key` was changed to "Cuddly" for as long as it's around. This makes objects
extremely useful for representing and remembering collections of data - some of which can be other 
objects in turn: 

- A player character with all its stats 
- A monster with HP
- A chest with a number of gold coins in it
- A room with other objects inside it
- The current policy positions of a political party
- A rule with methods for resolving challenges or roll dice
- A multi-dimenstional data-point for a complex economic simulation
- And so much more! 

### Classes can have children

Classes can _inherit_ from each other. A "child" class will inherit everything from its "parent" class. But if 
the child adds something with the same name as its parent, it will _override_ whatever it got from its parent. 

Let's expand `mygame/typeclasses/mymobile.py` with another class:

```python

class Mobile:
    """
    This is a base class for Mobiles.
    """
 
    def __init__(self, key):
        self.key = key 

    def move_around(self):
        print(f"{self.key} is moving!")


class Dragon(Mobile):
    """
    This is a dragon-specific mobile.
    """

    def move_around(self):
        print(f"{self.key} flies through the air high above!")

    def firebreath(self):
        """ 
        Let our dragon breathe fire.
        """
        print(f"{self.key} breathes fire!")

```

We added some docstrings for clarity. It's always a good idea to add doc strings; you can do so also for methods,
as exemplified for the new `firebreath` method.

We created the new class `Dragon` but we also specified that `Mobile` is the _parent_ of `Dragon` but adding 
the parent in parenthesis. `class Classname(Parent)` is the way to do this. 

```sidebar:: Multi-inheritance

    It's possible to add more comma-separated parents to a class. You should usually avoid
    this until you `really` know what you are doing. A single parent will be enough for almost
    every case you'll need.

```

Let's try out our new class. First `reload` the server and the do

    > py 
    > from typeclasses.mobile import Dragon 
    > smaug = Dragon("Smaug")
    > smaug.move_around()
    Smaug flies through the air high above!
    > smaug.firebreath()
    Smaug breathes fire! 
    
Because we didn't implement `__init__` in `Dragon`, we got the one from `Monster` instead. But since we 
implemented our own `move_around` in `Dragon`, it _overrides_ the one in `Monster`. And `firebreath` is only 
available for `Dragon`s of course. Having that on `Monster` would not have made much sense, since not every monster
can breathe fire. 

One can also force a class to use resources from the parent even if you are overriding some of it. This is done
with the `super()` method. Modify your `Dragon` class as follows:


```python
# ... 

class Dragon(Monster):

    def move_around(self):
        super().move_around()
        print("The world trembles.")
    
    # ...
```
> Keep `Monster` and the `firebreath` method, `# ...` indicates the rest of the code is untouched. 
>

The `super().move_around()` line means that we are calling `move_around()` on the parent of the class. So in this 
case, we will call `Monster.move_around` first, before doing our own thing. 

Now `reload` the server and then: 

    > py 
    > from typeclasses.mobile import Dragon 
    > smaug = Dragon("Smaug")
    > smaug.move_around()
    Smaug is moving!
    The world trembles.

We can see that `Monster.move_around()` is calls first and prints "Smaug is moving!", followed by the extra bit 
about the trembling world we added in the `Dragon` class.

Inheritance is very powerful because it allows you to organize and re-use code while only adding the special things
you want to change. Evennia uses this concept a lot. 


## Our first persistent object

Now we should know enough to understand what is happening in `mygame/typeclasses/objects.py`.
Open it again: 

```python
"""
module docstring
"""
from evennia import DefaultObject

class Object(DefaultObject):
    """
    class docstring
    """
    pass
```

So we have a class `Object` that _inherits_ from `DefaultObject`, which we have imported from Evennia. 
The class itself doesn't do anything (it just `pass`es) but that doesn't mean it's useless. As we've seen,
it inherits all the functionality of its parent. It's in fact an _exact replica_ of `DefaultObject` right now. 
If we knew what kind of methods and resources were available on `DefaultObject` we could add our own and 
change the way it works!

> Hint: We will get back to this, but to learn what resources an Evennia parent like `DefaultObject` offers, 
> easiest is to peek at its [API documentation](api:evennia.objects.objects#DefaultObject). The docstring for
> the `Object` class can also help.

One thing that Evennia offers and which you don't get with vanilla Python classes is _persistence_. As you've 
found, Fluffy, Cuddly and Smaug are gone once we reload the server. Let's see if we can fix this. 

Go back to `mygame/typeclasses/mobile.py`. Change it as follows: 

```python

from typeclasses.objects import Object

class Mobile(Object):
    """
    This is a base class for Mobiles.
    """
    def move_around(self):
        print(f"{self.key} is moving!")


class Dragon(Mobile):
    """
    This is a dragon-specific mobile.
    """

    def move_around(self):
        super().move_around()
        print("The world trembles.")

    def firebreath(self):
        """ 
        Let our dragon breathe fire.
        """
        print(f"{self.key} breathes fire!")

```

Don't forget to save. We removed `Monster.__init__` and made `Mobile` inherit from Evennia's `Object` (which in turn 
inherits from Evennia's `DefaultObject`, as we saw). By extension, this means that `Dragon` also inherits 
from `DefaultObject`, just from further away!

### Creating by calling the class (less common way)

First reload the server as usual. We will need to create the dragon a little differently this time: 

```sidebar:: Keyword arguments

    Keyword arguments (like `db_key="Smaug"`) is a way to 
    name the input arguments to a function or method. They make 
    things easier to read but also allows for conveniently setting 
    defaults for values not given explicitly.

```
    > py
    > from typeclasses.mymobile import Dragon
    > smaug = Dragon(db_key="Smaug", db_location=here)
    > smaug.save()
    > smaug.move_around()
    Smaug is moving!
    The world trembles.

Smaug works the same as before, but we created him differently: first we used 
`Dragon(db_key="Smaug", db_location=here)` to create the object, and then we used `smaug.save()` afterwards. 

    > quit()
    Python Console is closing.
    > look 
    
You should now see that Smaug _is in the room with you_. Woah! 

    > reload 
    > look 
    
_He's still there_... What we just did is to create a new entry in the database for Smaug. We gave the object 
its name (key) and set its location to our current location (remember that `here` is just something available 
in the `py` command, you can't use it elsewhere). 

To make use of Smaug in code we must first find him in the database. For an object in the current 
location we can easily do this in `py` by using `me.search()`: 

    > py smaug = me.search("Smaug") ; smaug.firebreath()
    Smaug breathes fire!  

### Creating using create_object

Creating Smaug like we did above is nice because it's similar to how we created non-database
bound Python instances before. But you need to use `db_key` instead of `key` and you also have to 
remember to call `.save()` afterwards. Evennia has a helper function that is more common to use, 
called `create_object`:

    > py fluffy = evennia.create_object('typeclases.mymobile.Mobile', key="Fluffy", location=here)
    > look 
    
Boom, Fluffy should now be in the room with you, a little less scary than Smaug. You specify the 
python-path to the code you want and then set the key and location. Evennia sets things up and saves for you. 

If you want to find Fluffy from anywhere, you can use Evennia's `search_object` helper: 

    > fluffy = evennia.search_object("Fluffy")[0] ; fluffy.move_around()
    Fluffy is moving! 

> The `[0]` is because `search_object` always returns a _list_ of zero, one or more found objects. The `[0]`
means that we want the first element of this list (counting in Python always starts from 0). If there were 
multiple Fluffies we could get the second one with `[1]`.

### Creating using create-command

Finally, you can also create a new Dragon using the familiar builder-commands we explored a few lessons ago:

    > create/drop Cuddly:typeclasses.mymobile.Mobile

Cuddly is now in the room. After learning about how objects are created you'll realize that all this command really
does is to parse your input, figure out that `/drop` means to "give the object the same location as the caller",
and then do a call akin to

    evennia.create_object("typeclasses.mymobile.Mobile", key="Cuddly", location=here)

That's pretty much all there is to the mighty `create` command. 

... And speaking of Commands, we should try to add one of our own next. 


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